The Olympic motto through the lens of equestrian sports

The Olympic motto Citius, Altius, Fortius (faster, higher, stronger) was adopted with the launch of the Olympic movement in 1894. It was modified by the International Olympic Committee in 2021 with the addition of the word Communiter (together) to emphasize the importance of unity and solidarity in sport and in the World in general. This article interprets the Olympic motto in the context of the three Olympic equestrian sports in which a horse and a rider perform together as a single entity. In this review, we describe and compare equine locomotor biomechanics in the context of the three Olympic equestrian sports: three-day eventing, show jumping and dressage, each requiring different athletic talents. Eventers gallop at an average speed of approximately 34 kmh−1 for 10 min across natural terrain negotiating inclines, declines, and turns and jumping up to 42 obstacles. Biomechanical requirements prioritize speed and strength. Physiologically, a large aerobic capacity limits lactate accumulation and delays the onset of fatigue, while having a muscle fiber profile that facilitates the development of force and power is necessary for jumping at speed. Show jumpers jump a course of approximately 12 obstacles that are 1.45–1.60 m high over 450–650 m at an average speed of 24 kmh−1. The ability to generate large forces and high powers is needed to project the horse high enough to clear the fences. Show jumping is energyintensive and horses have elevated blood lactate values at the end of a round. Dressage horses perform gymnastic movements at different gaits and over a range of speeds (0-22 kmh−1) but with a low average speed (~8-9 kmh−1) (Clayton, 1990). Heart rates are generally within the aerobic range and muscular effort appears to be localized to specific muscles that perform eccentricconcentric contractions to maintain the required uphill posture and balance while generating high force and power to perform the movements. In this article, we use the galloping performance of the event horse, the jumping performance of the show jumper, and a slow speed dressage movement requiring great strength and balance to explore how the equine athlete fulfills the Olympic values of faster, higher, and stronger.