Telocytes revisited

Telocytes (TCs) are a novel interstitial (stromal) cell type described in many tissues and organs (www.telocytes.com). A TC is characterized by a small cell body (9-15 μm) and a variable number (one to five) of extremely long and thin telopodes (Tps), with alternating regions of podomers (∼80 nm) and podoms (250-300 nm). Tps are interconnected by homo- and heterocellular junctions and form three-dimensional networks. Moreover, Tps release three types of extracellular vesicles: exosomes, ectosomes, and multivesicular cargos, which are involved in paracrine signaling. Different techniques have been used to characterize TCs, from classical methods (light microscopy, electron microscopy) to modern 'omics'. It is considered that electron microscopy is essential for their identification, and CD34/PDGFRα double immunohistochemistry can orientate the diagnosis. Functional evidence is accumulating that TCs may be intimately involved in the maintenance of tissue homeostasis and renewal by short- and long-distance intercellular communication. This review focuses on the most recent findings regarding TC features and locations and the principal hypotheses about their functions in normal and diseased organs. TC involvement in regenerative medicine is also considered.